test(store): SS Raw Benchmarks

store/database.go

@@ -71,6 +71,9 @@ type VersionedDatabase interface {
 	VersionedReaderWriter
 	VersionedIteratorCreator
 	VersionedBatcher
+
+	// Close releases associated resources. It should NOT be idempotent. It must
+	// only be called once and any call after may panic.
 	io.Closer
 }
 

store/go.mod

@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ require (
 	github.com/cosmos/ics23/go v0.10.0
 	github.com/linxGnu/grocksdb v1.8.0
 	github.com/stretchr/testify v1.8.4
+	modernc.org/sqlite v1.25.0
 )
 
 require (
@@ -27,12 +28,15 @@ require (
 	github.com/cockroachdb/tokenbucket v0.0.0-20230807174530-cc333fc44b06 // indirect
 	github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.1 // indirect
 	github.com/decred/dcrd/dcrec/secp256k1/v4 v4.0.1 // indirect
+	github.com/dustin/go-humanize v1.0.1 // indirect
 	github.com/emicklei/dot v1.4.2 // indirect
 	github.com/gogo/protobuf v1.3.2 // indirect
 	github.com/golang/protobuf v1.5.3 // indirect
 	github.com/golang/snappy v0.0.4 // indirect
 	github.com/google/btree v1.1.2 // indirect
 	github.com/google/go-cmp v0.5.9 // indirect
+	github.com/google/uuid v1.3.0 // indirect
+	github.com/kballard/go-shellquote v0.0.0-20180428030007-95032a82bc51 // indirect
 	github.com/klauspost/compress v1.16.0 // indirect
 	github.com/kr/pretty v0.3.1 // indirect
 	github.com/kr/text v0.2.0 // indirect
@@ -47,18 +51,30 @@ require (
 	github.com/prometheus/client_model v0.3.0 // indirect
 	github.com/prometheus/common v0.42.0 // indirect
 	github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.8.0 // indirect
+	github.com/remyoudompheng/bigfft v0.0.0-20230129092748-24d4a6f8daec // indirect
 	github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.9.0 // indirect
 	github.com/rs/zerolog v1.30.0 // indirect
 	github.com/sasha-s/go-deadlock v0.3.1 // indirect
 	github.com/spf13/cast v1.5.1 // indirect
 	github.com/syndtr/goleveldb v1.0.1-0.20210819022825-2ae1ddf74ef7 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/crypto v0.12.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20230817173708-d852ddb80c63 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20230811145659-89c5cff77bcb // indirect
+	golang.org/x/mod v0.11.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/net v0.14.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/sys v0.11.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/text v0.12.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/tools v0.7.0 // indirect
 	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20230815205213-6bfd019c3878 // indirect
 	google.golang.org/grpc v1.57.0 // indirect
 	google.golang.org/protobuf v1.31.0 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 // indirect
+	lukechampine.com/uint128 v1.2.0 // indirect
+	modernc.org/cc/v3 v3.40.0 // indirect
+	modernc.org/ccgo/v3 v3.16.13 // indirect
+	modernc.org/libc v1.24.1 // indirect
+	modernc.org/mathutil v1.5.0 // indirect
+	modernc.org/memory v1.6.0 // indirect
+	modernc.org/opt v0.1.3 // indirect
+	modernc.org/strutil v1.1.3 // indirect
+	modernc.org/token v1.0.1 // indirect
 )

store/go.sum

@@ -69,6 +69,8 @@ github.com/dgraph-io/badger v1.6.0/go.mod h1:zwt7syl517jmP8s94KqSxTlM6IMsdhYy6ps
 github.com/dgrijalva/jwt-go v3.2.0+incompatible/go.mod h1:E3ru+11k8xSBh+hMPgOLZmtrrCbhqsmaPHjLKYnJCaQ=
 github.com/dgryski/go-farm v0.0.0-20190423205320-6a90982ecee2/go.mod h1:SqUrOPUnsFjfmXRMNPybcSiG0BgUW2AuFH8PAnS2iTw=
 github.com/dustin/go-humanize v1.0.0/go.mod h1:HtrtbFcZ19U5GC7JDqmcUSB87Iq5E25KnS6fMYU6eOk=
+github.com/dustin/go-humanize v1.0.1 h1:GzkhY7T5VNhEkwH0PVJgjz+fX1rhBrR7pRT3mDkpeCY=
+github.com/dustin/go-humanize v1.0.1/go.mod h1:Mu1zIs6XwVuF/gI1OepvI0qD18qycQx+mFykh5fBlto=
 github.com/eknkc/amber v0.0.0-20171010120322-cdade1c07385/go.mod h1:0vRUJqYpeSZifjYj7uP3BG/gKcuzL9xWVV/Y+cK33KM=
 github.com/emicklei/dot v1.4.2 h1:UbK6gX4yvrpHKlxuUQicwoAis4zl8Dzwit9SnbBAXWw=
 github.com/emicklei/dot v1.4.2/go.mod h1:DeV7GvQtIw4h2u73RKBkkFdvVAz0D9fzeJrgPW6gy/s=
@@ -130,6 +132,9 @@ github.com/google/go-cmp v0.5.5/go.mod h1:v8dTdLbMG2kIc/vJvl+f65V22dbkXbowE6jgT/
 github.com/google/go-cmp v0.5.9 h1:O2Tfq5qg4qc4AmwVlvv0oLiVAGB7enBSJ2x2DqQFi38=
 github.com/google/go-cmp v0.5.9/go.mod h1:17dUlkBOakJ0+DkrSSNjCkIjxS6bF9zb3elmeNGIjoY=
 github.com/google/go-querystring v1.0.0/go.mod h1:odCYkC5MyYFN7vkCjXpyrEuKhc/BUO6wN/zVPAxq5ck=
+github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20230228050547-1710fef4ab10 h1:CqYfpuYIjnlNxM3msdyPRKabhXZWbKjf3Q8BWROFBso=
+github.com/google/uuid v1.3.0 h1:t6JiXgmwXMjEs8VusXIJk2BXHsn+wx8BZdTaoZ5fu7I=
+github.com/google/uuid v1.3.0/go.mod h1:TIyPZe4MgqvfeYDBFedMoGGpEw/LqOeaOT+nhxU+yHo=
 github.com/gopherjs/gopherjs v0.0.0-20181017120253-0766667cb4d1/go.mod h1:wJfORRmW1u3UXTncJ5qlYoELFm8eSnnEO6hX4iZ3EWY=
 github.com/gorilla/websocket v1.4.0/go.mod h1:E7qHFY5m1UJ88s3WnNqhKjPHQ0heANvMoAMk2YaljkQ=
 github.com/hashicorp/go-version v1.2.0/go.mod h1:fltr4n8CU8Ke44wwGCBoEymUuxUHl09ZGVZPK5anwXA=
@@ -152,6 +157,8 @@ github.com/kataras/golog v0.0.9/go.mod h1:12HJgwBIZFNGL0EJnMRhmvGA0PQGx8VFwrZtM4
 github.com/kataras/iris/v12 v12.0.1/go.mod h1:udK4vLQKkdDqMGJJVd/msuMtN6hpYJhg/lSzuxjhO+U=
 github.com/kataras/neffos v0.0.10/go.mod h1:ZYmJC07hQPW67eKuzlfY7SO3bC0mw83A3j6im82hfqw=
 github.com/kataras/pio v0.0.0-20190103105442-ea782b38602d/go.mod h1:NV88laa9UiiDuX9AhMbDPkGYSPugBOV6yTZB1l2K9Z0=
+github.com/kballard/go-shellquote v0.0.0-20180428030007-95032a82bc51 h1:Z9n2FFNUXsshfwJMBgNA0RU6/i7WVaAegv3PtuIHPMs=
+github.com/kballard/go-shellquote v0.0.0-20180428030007-95032a82bc51/go.mod h1:CzGEWj7cYgsdH8dAjBGEr58BoE7ScuLd+fwFZ44+/x8=
 github.com/kisielk/errcheck v1.2.0/go.mod h1:/BMXB+zMLi60iA8Vv6Ksmxu/1UDYcXs4uQLJ+jE2L00=
 github.com/kisielk/errcheck v1.5.0/go.mod h1:pFxgyoBC7bSaBwPgfKdkLd5X25qrDl4LWUI2bnpBCr8=
 github.com/kisielk/gotool v1.0.0/go.mod h1:XhKaO+MFFWcvkIS/tQcRk01m1F5IRFswLeQ+oQHNcck=
@@ -183,6 +190,7 @@ github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.14/go.mod h1:7GGIvUiUoEMVVmxf/4nioHXj79iQHKdU27k
 github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.16/go.mod h1:kYGgaQfpe5nmfYZH+SKPsOc2e4SrIfOl2e/yFXSvRLM=
 github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.19 h1:JITubQf0MOLdlGRuRq+jtsDlekdYPia9ZFsB8h/APPA=
 github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.19/go.mod h1:W+V8PltTTMOvKvAeJH7IuucS94S2C6jfK/D7dTCTo3Y=
+github.com/mattn/go-sqlite3 v1.14.16 h1:yOQRA0RpS5PFz/oikGwBEqvAWhWg5ufRz4ETLjwpU1Y=
 github.com/mattn/goveralls v0.0.2/go.mod h1:8d1ZMHsd7fW6IRPKQh46F2WRpyib5/X4FOpevwGNQEw=
 github.com/matttproud/golang_protobuf_extensions v1.0.4 h1:mmDVorXM7PCGKw94cs5zkfA9PSy5pEvNWRP0ET0TIVo=
 github.com/matttproud/golang_protobuf_extensions v1.0.4/go.mod h1:BSXmuO+STAnVfrANrmjBb36TMTDstsz7MSK+HVaYKv4=
@@ -229,6 +237,9 @@ github.com/prometheus/common v0.42.0 h1:EKsfXEYo4JpWMHH5cg+KOUWeuJSov1Id8zGR8eeI
 github.com/prometheus/common v0.42.0/go.mod h1:xBwqVerjNdUDjgODMpudtOMwlOwf2SaTr1yjz4b7Zbc=
 github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.8.0 h1:ODq8ZFEaYeCaZOJlZZdJA2AbQR98dSHSM1KW/You5mo=
 github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.8.0/go.mod h1:z7EfXMXOkbkqb9IINtpCn86r/to3BnA0uaxHdg830/4=
+github.com/remyoudompheng/bigfft v0.0.0-20200410134404-eec4a21b6bb0/go.mod h1:qqbHyh8v60DhA7CoWK5oRCqLrMHRGoxYCSS9EjAz6Eo=
+github.com/remyoudompheng/bigfft v0.0.0-20230129092748-24d4a6f8daec h1:W09IVJc94icq4NjY3clb7Lk8O1qJ8BdBEF8z0ibU0rE=
+github.com/remyoudompheng/bigfft v0.0.0-20230129092748-24d4a6f8daec/go.mod h1:qqbHyh8v60DhA7CoWK5oRCqLrMHRGoxYCSS9EjAz6Eo=
 github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.9.0 h1:73kH8U+JUqXU8lRuOHeVHaa/SZPifC7BkcraZVejAe8=
 github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.9.0/go.mod h1:WtVeX8xhTBvf0smdhujwtBcq4Qrzq/fJaraNFVN+nFs=
 github.com/rs/xid v1.5.0/go.mod h1:trrq9SKmegXys3aeAKXMUTdJsYXVwGY3RLcfgqegfbg=
@@ -284,13 +295,15 @@ golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20200622213623-75b288015ac9/go.mod h1:LzIPMQfyMNhhGPh
 golang.org/x/crypto v0.12.0 h1:tFM/ta59kqch6LlvYnPa0yx5a83cL2nHflFhYKvv9Yk=
 golang.org/x/crypto v0.12.0/go.mod h1:NF0Gs7EO5K4qLn+Ylc+fih8BSTeIjAP05siRnAh98yw=
 golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20190121172915-509febef88a4/go.mod h1:CJ0aWSM057203Lf6IL+f9T1iT9GByDxfZKAQTCR3kQA=
-golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20230817173708-d852ddb80c63 h1:m64FZMko/V45gv0bNmrNYoDEq8U5YUhetc9cBWKS1TQ=
-golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20230817173708-d852ddb80c63/go.mod h1:0v4NqG35kSWCMzLaMeX+IQrlSnVE/bqGSyC2cz/9Le8=
+golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20230811145659-89c5cff77bcb h1:mIKbk8weKhSeLH2GmUTrvx8CjkyJmnU1wFmg59CUjFA=
+golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20230811145659-89c5cff77bcb/go.mod h1:FXUEEKJgO7OQYeo8N01OfiKP8RXMtf6e8aTskBGqWdc=
 golang.org/x/lint v0.0.0-20181026193005-c67002cb31c3/go.mod h1:UVdnD1Gm6xHRNCYTkRU2/jEulfH38KcIWyp/GAMgvoE=
 golang.org/x/lint v0.0.0-20190227174305-5b3e6a55c961/go.mod h1:wehouNa3lNwaWXcvxsM5YxQ5yQlVC4a0KAMCusXpPoU=
 golang.org/x/lint v0.0.0-20190313153728-d0100b6bd8b3/go.mod h1:6SW0HCj/g11FgYtHlgUYUwCkIfeOF89ocIRzGO/8vkc=
 golang.org/x/mod v0.2.0/go.mod h1:s0Qsj1ACt9ePp/hMypM3fl4fZqREWJwdYDEqhRiZZUA=
 golang.org/x/mod v0.3.0/go.mod h1:s0Qsj1ACt9ePp/hMypM3fl4fZqREWJwdYDEqhRiZZUA=
+golang.org/x/mod v0.11.0 h1:bUO06HqtnRcc/7l71XBe4WcqTZ+3AH1J59zWDDwLKgU=
+golang.org/x/mod v0.11.0/go.mod h1:iBbtSCu2XBx23ZKBPSOrRkjjQPZFPuis4dIYUhu/chs=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180724234803-3673e40ba225/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180826012351-8a410e7b638d/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180906233101-161cd47e91fd/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
@@ -355,6 +368,8 @@ golang.org/x/tools v0.0.0-20190524140312-2c0ae7006135/go.mod h1:RgjU9mgBXZiqYHBn
 golang.org/x/tools v0.0.0-20191119224855-298f0cb1881e/go.mod h1:b+2E5dAYhXwXZwtnZ6UAqBI28+e2cm9otk0dWdXHAEo=
 golang.org/x/tools v0.0.0-20200619180055-7c47624df98f/go.mod h1:EkVYQZoAsY45+roYkvgYkIh4xh/qjgUK9TdY2XT94GE=
 golang.org/x/tools v0.0.0-20210106214847-113979e3529a/go.mod h1:emZCQorbCU4vsT4fOWvOPXz4eW1wZW4PmDk9uLelYpA=
+golang.org/x/tools v0.7.0 h1:W4OVu8VVOaIO0yzWMNdepAulS7YfoS3Zabrm8DOXXU4=
+golang.org/x/tools v0.7.0/go.mod h1:4pg6aUX35JBAogB10C9AtvVL+qowtN4pT3CGSQex14s=
 golang.org/x/xerrors v0.0.0-20190717185122-a985d3407aa7/go.mod h1:I/5z698sn9Ka8TeJc9MKroUUfqBBauWjQqLJ2OPfmY0=
 golang.org/x/xerrors v0.0.0-20191011141410-1b5146add898/go.mod h1:I/5z698sn9Ka8TeJc9MKroUUfqBBauWjQqLJ2OPfmY0=
 golang.org/x/xerrors v0.0.0-20191204190536-9bdfabe68543/go.mod h1:I/5z698sn9Ka8TeJc9MKroUUfqBBauWjQqLJ2OPfmY0=
@@ -401,3 +416,27 @@ gotest.tools v2.2.0+incompatible h1:VsBPFP1AI068pPrMxtb/S8Zkgf9xEmTLJjfM+P5UIEo=
 gotest.tools/v3 v3.5.0 h1:Ljk6PdHdOhAb5aDMWXjDLMMhph+BpztA4v1QdqEW2eY=
 honnef.co/go/tools v0.0.0-20190102054323-c2f93a96b099/go.mod h1:rf3lG4BRIbNafJWhAfAdb/ePZxsR/4RtNHQocxwk9r4=
 honnef.co/go/tools v0.0.0-20190523083050-ea95bdfd59fc/go.mod h1:rf3lG4BRIbNafJWhAfAdb/ePZxsR/4RtNHQocxwk9r4=
+lukechampine.com/uint128 v1.2.0 h1:mBi/5l91vocEN8otkC5bDLhi2KdCticRiwbdB0O+rjI=
+lukechampine.com/uint128 v1.2.0/go.mod h1:c4eWIwlEGaxC/+H1VguhU4PHXNWDCDMUlWdIWl2j1gk=
+modernc.org/cc/v3 v3.40.0 h1:P3g79IUS/93SYhtoeaHW+kRCIrYaxJ27MFPv+7kaTOw=
+modernc.org/cc/v3 v3.40.0/go.mod h1:/bTg4dnWkSXowUO6ssQKnOV0yMVxDYNIsIrzqTFDGH0=
+modernc.org/ccgo/v3 v3.16.13 h1:Mkgdzl46i5F/CNR/Kj80Ri59hC8TKAhZrYSaqvkwzUw=
+modernc.org/ccgo/v3 v3.16.13/go.mod h1:2Quk+5YgpImhPjv2Qsob1DnZ/4som1lJTodubIcoUkY=
+modernc.org/ccorpus v1.11.6 h1:J16RXiiqiCgua6+ZvQot4yUuUy8zxgqbqEEUuGPlISk=
+modernc.org/httpfs v1.0.6 h1:AAgIpFZRXuYnkjftxTAZwMIiwEqAfk8aVB2/oA6nAeM=
+modernc.org/libc v1.24.1 h1:uvJSeCKL/AgzBo2yYIPPTy82v21KgGnizcGYfBHaNuM=
+modernc.org/libc v1.24.1/go.mod h1:FmfO1RLrU3MHJfyi9eYYmZBfi/R+tqZ6+hQ3yQQUkak=
+modernc.org/mathutil v1.5.0 h1:rV0Ko/6SfM+8G+yKiyI830l3Wuz1zRutdslNoQ0kfiQ=
+modernc.org/mathutil v1.5.0/go.mod h1:mZW8CKdRPY1v87qxC/wUdX5O1qDzXMP5TH3wjfpga6E=
+modernc.org/memory v1.6.0 h1:i6mzavxrE9a30whzMfwf7XWVODx2r5OYXvU46cirX7o=
+modernc.org/memory v1.6.0/go.mod h1:PkUhL0Mugw21sHPeskwZW4D6VscE/GQJOnIpCnW6pSU=
+modernc.org/opt v0.1.3 h1:3XOZf2yznlhC+ibLltsDGzABUGVx8J6pnFMS3E4dcq4=
+modernc.org/opt v0.1.3/go.mod h1:WdSiB5evDcignE70guQKxYUl14mgWtbClRi5wmkkTX0=
+modernc.org/sqlite v1.25.0 h1:AFweiwPNd/b3BoKnBOfFm+Y260guGMF+0UFk0savqeA=
+modernc.org/sqlite v1.25.0/go.mod h1:FL3pVXie73rg3Rii6V/u5BoHlSoyeZeIgKZEgHARyCU=
+modernc.org/strutil v1.1.3 h1:fNMm+oJklMGYfU9Ylcywl0CO5O6nTfaowNsh2wpPjzY=
+modernc.org/strutil v1.1.3/go.mod h1:MEHNA7PdEnEwLvspRMtWTNnp2nnyvMfkimT1NKNAGbw=
+modernc.org/tcl v1.15.2 h1:C4ybAYCGJw968e+Me18oW55kD/FexcHbqH2xak1ROSY=
+modernc.org/token v1.0.1 h1:A3qvTqOwexpfZZeyI0FeGPDlSWX5pjZu9hF4lU+EKWg=
+modernc.org/token v1.0.1/go.mod h1:UGzOrNV1mAFSEB63lOFHIpNRUVMvYTc6yu1SMY/XTDM=
+modernc.org/z v1.7.3 h1:zDJf6iHjrnB+WRD88stbXokugjyc0/pB91ri1gO6LZY=

store/iterator.go

@@ -21,8 +21,8 @@ type Iterator interface {
 	// Value returns the value of the current key/value pair, or nil if done.
 	Value() []byte
 
-	// Close releases associated resources. Release should always succeed and can
-	// be called multiple times without causing error.
+	// Close releases associated resources. It should NOT be idempotent. It must
+	// only be called once and any call after may panic.
 	Close()
 }
 

store/storage/db.go

@@ -82,13 +82,6 @@ func (db *Database) Delete(storeKey string, version uint64, key []byte) error {
 	return db.vdb.Delete(storeKey, version, key)
 }
 
-func (db *Database) isClosed() bool {
-	db.mu.Lock()
-	defer db.mu.Unlock()
-
-	return db.vdb == nil
-}
-
 func (db *Database) GetLatestVersion() (uint64, error) {
 	return db.vdb.GetLatestVersion()
 }

store/storage/pebbledb/db.go

@@ -52,7 +52,9 @@ func NewWithDB(storage *pebble.DB) *Database {
 }
 
 func (db *Database) Close() error {
-	return db.storage.Close()
+	err := db.storage.Close()
+	db.storage = nil
+	return err
 }
 
 func (db *Database) SetLatestVersion(version uint64) error {

store/storage/pebbledb/db_test.go

@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ func TestStorageTestSuite(t *testing.T) {
 		NewDB: func(dir string) (store.VersionedDatabase, error) {
 			return New(dir)
 		},
+		EmptyBatchSize: 12,
 	}
 	suite.Run(t, s)
 }

store/storage/pebbledb/iterator.go

@@ -136,6 +136,7 @@ func (itr *iterator) assertIsValid() {
 	}
 }
 
+// nolint:unused // used for debugging in tests only
 func (itr *iterator) debugRawIterate() {
 	valid := itr.source.Valid()
 	for valid {

store/storage/rocksdb/db_test.go

@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ func TestStorageTestSuite(t *testing.T) {
 		NewDB: func(dir string) (store.VersionedDatabase, error) {
 			return New(dir)
 		},
+		EmptyBatchSize: 12,
 	}
 	suite.Run(t, s)
 }

store/storage/sqlite/batch.go

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+package sqlite
+
+import (
+	"database/sql"
+	"fmt"
+
+	"cosmossdk.io/store/v2"
+)
+
+var _ store.Batch = (*Batch)(nil)
+
+type batchAction int
+
+const (
+	batchActionSet batchAction = 0
+	batchActionDel batchAction = 1
+)
+
+type batchOp struct {
+	action     batchAction
+	storeKey   string
+	key, value []byte
+}
+
+type Batch struct {
+	tx      *sql.Tx
+	ops     []batchOp
+	size    int
+	version uint64
+}
+
+func NewBatch(storage *sql.DB, version uint64) (*Batch, error) {
+	tx, err := storage.Begin()
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create SQL transaction: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return &Batch{
+		tx:      tx,
+		ops:     make([]batchOp, 0),
+		version: version,
+	}, nil
+}
+
+func (b *Batch) Size() int {
+	return b.size
+}
+
+func (b *Batch) Reset() {
+	b.ops = nil
+	b.ops = make([]batchOp, 0)
+	b.size = 0
+}
+
+func (b *Batch) Set(storeKey string, key, value []byte) error {
+	b.size += len(key) + len(value)
+	b.ops = append(b.ops, batchOp{action: batchActionSet, storeKey: storeKey, key: key, value: value})
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (b *Batch) Delete(storeKey string, key []byte) error {
+	b.size += len(key)
+	b.ops = append(b.ops, batchOp{action: batchActionDel, storeKey: storeKey, key: key})
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (b *Batch) Write() error {
+	_, err := b.tx.Exec(latestVersionStmt, reservedStoreKey, keyLatestHeight, b.version, 0, b.version)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to exec SQL statement: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	for _, op := range b.ops {
+		switch op.action {
+		case batchActionSet:
+			_, err := b.tx.Exec(upsertStmt, op.storeKey, op.key, op.value, b.version, op.value)
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("failed to exec SQL statement: %w", err)
+			}
+
+		case batchActionDel:
+			_, err := b.tx.Exec(delStmt, op.storeKey, op.key, b.version)
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("failed to exec SQL statement: %w", err)
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	if err := b.tx.Commit(); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to write SQL transaction: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}